Rural Tourism Under Apartheid South Africa: The Case of Transkei

Zinzi Sixaba; Christian Myles Rogerson

doi:10.58683/sp.379

Published : 2023-03-23

Vol. 41 No. 1 (2023)

Rural Tourism Under Apartheid South Africa: The Case of Transkei

Zinzi Sixaba

Christian Myles Rogerson

https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1306-8867

DOI: https://doi.org/10.58683/sp.379

Abstract

Rural tourism scholarship has greatly expanded over the past two decades. One aspect of rural tourism that is undeveloped in literature is the historical evolution of rural tourism destinations. This paper uses an historical approach and archival documentary sources to examine the evolution of rural tourism under apartheid in one of the former Bantustans of South Africa, namely Transkei. It is shown tourism became a sector of policy interest because of disappointments associated with national government programmes for industrial decentralization. Early tourism promotion centred on leisure tourism around the natural beauty and attractions of Transkei’s coastal areas. With the grant of ‘independence’, however, a new institutional environment emerged which resulted in the Transkei becoming a focus for casino tourism at a time when casino gambling was prohibited in South Africa. The growth of casino tourism was, however, linked to corruption which occurred between South African tourism capital and the leadership of this Bantustan.

Keywords:

rural tourism; apartheid; South Africa; tourism geography; historical approach; Transkei; casino tourism

Most read articles by the same author(s)

Zinzi Sixaba, Christian Myles Rogerson, ‘Transformation’ and Tourism Small Firm Development in South Africa: Evidence from Eastern Cape Province , Studia Periegetica: Vol. 41 No. 1 (2023): Tourism & Hospitality Issues in Africa vol. 1

Details

References

Statistics

Authors

Download files

manuscript

Citation rules

Sixaba, Z., & Rogerson, C. M. (2023). Rural Tourism Under Apartheid South Africa: The Case of Transkei. Studia Periegetica, 41(1), 7–26. https://doi.org/10.58683/sp.379

Altmetric indicators

Cited by / Share

Licence

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.

References

Aerni-Flessner, J. & Twala, C. (2021) Bargaining with land: Borders, Bantustans and sovereignty in 1970s and 1980s Southern Africa. Journal of Southern African Studies, 47 (6), 993-1009. https://doi.org/10.1080/03057070.2021.1982264 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/03057070.2021.1982264

Alim, M.A., Jee, T.K., Voon, M.L., Ngui, K.S. & Kasuma, J. (2021). Tourism development through communities’ support: Rural communities perspective. GeoJournal of Tourism and Geosites, 39 (4), 1473-1482. https://doi.org/10.30892/gtg.394spl18-791 DOI: https://doi.org/10.30892/gtg.394spl18-791

Ally, S. (2015). Material remains: Artifice versus artifact(s) in the archive of Bantustan rule. Journal of Southern African Studies, 41 (5), 969-989. https://doi.org/10.1080/03057070.2015.1071517 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/03057070.2015.1071517

Ashley, C. & Ntshona, Z.M. (2003). Transforming roles but not reality?: Private sector and community involvement in tourism and forestry development on the Wild Coast. Sustainable Livelihoods in Southern Africa Programme, University of Sussex.

Aydin, E. (2022). Rural tourism researches: A co-citation analysis. Journal of Tourism, Leisure and Hospitality, 4 (1), 30-36. https://doi.org/10.`48119/toleho.1006285 DOI: https://doi.org/10.48119/toleho.1006285

Baskin, J. (1984). Casino's [sic] and Development in Southern Africa: A Case Study of Mzamba, Transkei. University of Transkei, Institute for Management and Development Studies.

Beinart, W. (2012). Beyond ‘homelands’: Some ideas about the history of African rural areas in South Africa. South African Historical Journal, 64 (1), 5-21. https://doi.org/10.1080/02582473.2012.642225 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/02582473.2012.642225

Briedenhann, J., & Wickens, E. (2004). Rural tourism – meeting the challenges of the new South Africa. International Journal of Tourism Research, 6 (3), 189-203. https://doi.org/10.1002/jtr.484 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/jtr.484

Carlyle-Gall, C. (1937). Six Thousand Miles of Sunshine Travel Over the South African Railways. South African Railways and Harbours.

Carson, D.A. (2018). Challenges and opportunities for rural tourism geographies: A view from the ‘boring’ peripheries. Tourism Geographies, 20 (4), 737-741. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616688.2018.1477173 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/14616688.2018.1477173

Carson, D.A., & Koster, R.L. (2019). The ‘boring bits in between’ synthesis. In R.L. Koster & D.A. Carson (Eds.), Perspectives on Rural Tourism Geographies: Case Studies from Developing Nations on the Exotic, The Fringe and the Boring Bits in Between, (pp. 243-251). Springer Nature. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-11950-8_13

Chen, P., Clarke, N., & Hracs, B.J. (2022). Urban-rural mobilities: The case of China’s rural tourism makers. Journal of Rural Studies, 95, 402-411. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.jrurstud.2022.09.017 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud.2022.09.017

Cunha, C., Kastenholz, E., & Carneiro, M.J. (2018). Lifestyle entrepreneurs: The case of rural tourism. In L.C. Carvalho, C. Rego, M.R. Lucas & M.I. Sánchez-Hernándes (Eds.), Entrepreneurship and structural change in dynamic territories, (pp. 175-188). Springer. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-76400-9_10

Christopher, A.J. (1994). The Atlas of Apartheid. Routledge.

Daily Dispatch (East London, newspaper), 3 May 1985; 5 December 1990.

Darabos, F. Kömíves, C., & Molinar, E.I. (2022). Examination of holiday habits in Hungary, with special regard to rural tourism. GeoJournal of Tourism and Geosites, 44 (4), 1403-1410. https://doi.org/10.30892/gtg44427-959 DOI: https://doi.org/10.30892/gtg.44427-959

de Beer, M.A., van Zyl, C., & Rogerson, C.M. (2022). Storytelling for destination development: Towards an African model. African Journal of Hospitality, Tourism and Leisure, 11 (4), 1491-1501. https://doi.org/10.46222/ajhtl.19770720-304

Department of Bantu Administration (1961). The Transkei. Department of Bantu Administration.

Dewar, D. (1987). An assessment of industrial decentralization as a regional development tool, with special reference to South Africa. In R. Tomlinson & M. Addleson (Eds.), Regional Restructuring Under Apartheid: Urban and Regional Policies in Contemporary South Africa, (pp. 207-221). Ravan.

Drummond, J., Drummond, F., & Rogerson, C.M. (2021). Latent opportunities for heritage tourism in South Africa: Evidence from Mahikeng and surrounds. African Journal of Hospitality, Tourism and Leisure, 10 (5), 1591-1609. https://doi.org/10.46222/ajhtl.19770720-181 DOI: https://doi.org/10.46222/ajhtl.19770720.181

Drummond, J., Rogerson, C.M., & Drummond, F. (2022). Adventure tourism in the apartheid era: Skydiving in Mafikeng-Mmabatho. African Journal of Hospitality, Tourism and Leisure, 11 (SE1), 578-594. https://doi.org/10.46222/ajhtl.19770720-92 DOI: https://doi.org/10.46222/ajhtl.19770720-92

Gabor, M. (2015). A content analysis of rural tourism research. MPRA Paper 77416.

Giddy, J.K., Rogerson, C.M., & Rogerson, J.M. (2022). Rural tourism firms in the COVID-19 environment: South African challenges. GeoJournal of Tourism and Geosites, 41 (2), 343-353. https://doi.org/10.30892/gtg41202-836 DOI: https://doi.org/10.30892/gtg.41202-836

Grandi, S., Macdonald, S., & Tankibayeva, A. (2022). The role of knowledge structures in reconfiguring rural tourism in response to COVID-19 pandemic: An exploratory study of rural tourism in Italy and Kazakhstan. GeoJournal of Tourism and Geosites, 41 (2), 555-563. https://doi.org/10.30892/gtg41229-863 DOI: https://doi.org/10.30892/gtg.41229-863

Haines, R.J., & Tomaselli, K.G. (1992). Toward a political economy of the South African film industry in the 1980s. In C.R. Lehman & R.M. Moore (Eds.), Multinational Culture: Social Impacts of a Global Economy, (pp. 155-166). Praeger.

Herman, G. & Blaga, L. (2022). Methodological aspects regarding the planning and development of integrated tourist routes and circuits: Case study Lucasprie, Romania. Geosport for Society, 17 (2), 120-133. DOI: https://doi.org/10.30892/gss.1705-088

Jones, P. (1997). Mmabatho, ‘Mother of the People’: Identity and development in an ‘independent’ Bantustan, Bophuthatswana, 1975-1994. PhD Thesis, Loughborough University, Loughborough, United Kingdom.

Karali, A., Das, S., & Roy, H. (2021). Forty years of the rural tourism research: Reviewing the trend, pattern and future agenda. Tourism Recreation Research. https://doi.org/10.1080/02508281.2021.1961065

Kastenholz, E., & Lima, J. (2011). The integral rural tourism experience from the tourist’s point of view – A qualitative analysis of its nature and meaning. Tourism & Management Studies, 7, 62-74. https://doi.org/10.1080/02508281.2021.1961065 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/02508281.2021.1961065

Kastenholz, E, Cunha, D., Cunha, C., Barroco, C., Pereira, A., Carneiro, M.J., & Lane, B. (2022). COVID-19, wine routes, crisis management and resilience amongst rural wine tourism businesses. Advances in Hospitality and Tourism Research, 10 (1), 1-26. DOI: 10.30519/ahtr.92800 DOI: https://doi.org/10.30519/ahtr.929800

Kim, E.G., Chhabra, D., & Timothy, D.J. (2021). Economics of experiential consumption in a rural heritage destination. Tourism Review International, 25 (4), 339-351. https://doi.org/10.3727/154427221X16098837280028 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3727/154427221X16098837280028

Kinczel, A., & Müller, A. (2022). Study on travel habits and leisure activities in the light of Covid-19 triggered changes in Romania and Hungary. GeoJournal of Tourism and Geosites, 41 (2), 440-447. https://doi.org/10.30892/gtg41214-848 DOI: https://doi.org/10.30892/gtg.41214-848

Knight, J., & Rogerson, C.M. (Eds.), (2019). The Geography of South Africa: Contemporary Changes and New Directions. Springer Nature. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-94974-1

Kovács, I. & Nagy, G. (2013). Tourism in peripheric regions – the possibilities of thematic routes. Analele Universitǎţii din Oradea, Seria Geografie, 23 (2), 220-228.

Lane, B. (1994). What is rural tourism?. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 2 (1), 7-21. https://doi.org/10.1080/09669589409510680 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09669589409510680

Lane, B., & Kastenholz, E. (2015). Rural tourism: The evolution of practice and research approaches – Towards a new generation concept. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 23 (8-9), 1133-1156. https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2015.1083997 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2015.1083997

Laurence, P. (1976). The Transkei: South Africa’s Politics of Partition. Ravan.

Lemon, A. (1976). Apartheid: A Geography of Separation. Saxon House.

Lemon, A. (Ed.). (1991). Homes Apart: South Africa’s Segregated Cities. Indiana University Press.

Lemon, A. (1998). Separate space and shared space in post-apartheid South Africa. Geography Research Forum, 1-21

Maharaj, B. (2020). The apartheid city. In R. Massey & A. Gunter (Eds), Urban Geography in South Africa, (pp. 39-54). Springer. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-25369-1_3

Mantey, I. (2021). Small and medium-scale enterprises (SMEs) in the development of tourism in the Global South: Their role and challenges. Masters (Human Geography) Dissertation, Mid-Sweden University, Östersund.

Marques, C.P., Guedes, A., & Bento, R. (2022). Rural tourism recovery between two COVID-19 waves: The case of Portugal. Current Issues in Tourism, 25 (6), 857-863. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2021.1910216

Naki, E. (2017). Bantu Holomisa: The Game Changer: An Authorized Biography. Picador Africa.

Nordbø, I. (2022). Tourism micro-enterprises and entrepreneurship in rural Norway. In B. Leick, S. Gretzinger & T. Makkonen (Eds.), The rural enterprise economy, (pp. 193-205). Routledge. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003034001-16

Page, S.J., & Getz, D. (1997). The business of rural tourism: International perspectives. In S.J. Page & D. Getz (Eds.), The Business of Rural Tourism (pp. 3-37). International Thomson Press.

Pedrosa, A., Martins, F., & Breda, Z. (2022). Tourism routes: A scoping review. European Journal of Tourism Research, 32, 3216. DOI: https://doi.org/10.54055/ejtr.v32i.2575

Peires, J. (1979). The House of Phalo – A History of the Xhosa 1700-1835. Ravan

Phillips, L. (2017). History of South Africa’s Bantustans. In Oxford Research Encyclopaedia of African History, online https;//doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.013.80 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.013.80

Pirie, G. H. (2022). Tourism histories in Africa. In E. Zuelow & K. James (Eds.), Oxford Handbook of Tourism and Travel History. (pp. C24.P1-C.24-N94). Oxford University Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190889555.013.24

Platzky, L. (1995) The Development Impact of South Africa’s Industrial Location Policies: An Unforeseen Legacy, The Hague Institute of Social Studies.

Platzky, L., & Walker, C. (1985). The Surplus People: Forced Removals in South Africa. Ravan.

Power, S. (2018). Findings from the treasure chest: Conducting archival research in tourism and hospitality. In R. Nunkoo (Ed.), Handbook of Research Methods for Tourism and Hospitality Management, (pp. 231-241). Edward Elgar. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4337/9781785366284.00026

Qu, M., McCormick, A.D., & Funck, C. (2022). Community resourcefulness and partnerships in rural tourism. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 30 (10), 2371-2390. https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2020.1849233 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2020.1849233

Republic of the Transkei (1981). Transkei Official Tourist Commercial Guide. Government Printer.

Rocca, L.H.D., & Zielinski, S. (2022). Community-based tourism, social capital, and governance of post-conflict rural tourism destinations: The case of Minca, Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, Colombia. Tourism Management Perspectives, 43, 100985. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tmp.2022.100985

Rogerson, C.M. (2007). Tourism routes as vehicles for local economic development in South Africa: The example of the Magaliesberg Meander. Urban Forum, 18(2), 49-68. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12132-007-9006-5 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12132-007-9006-5

Rogerson, C.M. (2019). Peripheral tourism trajectories: Evidence from King Sabata Dalindyebo Municipality, South Africa. GeoJournal of Tourism and Geosites, 26 (3), 974-992. https://doi.org/10.30892/gtg.26323-411 DOI: https://doi.org/10.30892/gtg.26323-411

Rogerson, C.M. (2020). Apartheid hotels: The rise and fall of the ‘non-White’ hotel in South Africa. In J. M. Rogerson & G. Visser (Eds), New Directions in South African Tourism Geographies, (pp. 33-54). Springer. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-29377-2_3

Rogerson, C.M. (2022a). Applying an historical approach to innovation and tourism: The ‘international hotel’ in apartheid South Africa. In I. Booyens & P. Brouder (Eds.), Handbook of Innovation for Sustainable Tourism, (pp. 274-291). Edward Elgar. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4337/9781800372740.00024

Rogerson, C.M. (2022b). Tourism evolution in rural South Africa: From native reserve to apartheid Bantustans, c.1920-1994. GeoJournal of Tourism and Leisure, 40 (1), 120-128. https://doi.org/10.30892/gtg40114-810 DOI: https://doi.org/10.30892/gtg.40114-810

Rogerson, C. M., & Rogerson, J.M. (2020). Racialized landscapes of tourism: From Jim Crow USA to apartheid South Africa. Bulletin of Geography: Socio-Economic Series, 48, 7-21. https://doi.org/10.2478/bog-2020-0010 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2478/bog-2020-0010

Rogerson, C.M., & Rogerson, J.M. (2021a). ‘In-between’ rural tourism: Rethinking rural tourism spaces for policy development in South Africa. African Journal of Hospitality, Tourism and Leisure, 10 (4), 1394-1413. https://doi.org/10.46222/ajhtl.19770720-169 DOI: https://doi.org/10.46222/ajhtl.19770720.169

Rogerson, C.M., & Rogerson, J.M. (2021b). COVID-19 travel intentions and changing consumer demand: Research review and policy implications for South Africa. African Journal of Hospitality, Tourism and Leisure, 10 (1), 1-21. https://doi.org/10.46222/ajhtl.19770720-83 DOI: https://doi.org/10.46222/ajhtl.19770720-83

Rogerson, C.M., & Rogerson, J.M. (2021c). The evolution of rural tourism in South Africa: An historical lens. African Journal of Hospitality, Tourism and Leisure, 10 (6), 1728-1740. https://doi.org/10.46222/ajhtl.19770720-189 DOI: https://doi.org/10.46222/ajhtl.19770720.189

Rogerson, C.M., & Rogerson, J.M. (2022a). The first round impacts of COVID-19 for rural tourism in South Africa. Studia Periegetica, 37 (1), 63-86. DOI 10.5604/01.3001.0015.8579 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5604/01.3001.0015.8579

Rogerson, C.M., & Rogerson, J.M. (2022b). Hotel histories of apartheid South Africa: The emergence and expansion of the Southern Sun Hotel Group c.1960-1983. Studia Periegetica, 39 (3), 27-46. DOI 10.5604/01.3001.0016.0763 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5604/01.3001.0016.0763

Rogerson, C.M. & Rogerson, J.M. (2023). The Bantustans of apartheid South Africa: Transitioning from industry to tourism. Revistă Româna de Geografie Politică, 25, 1-16. https://doi.org/10.30892/rrgp.251101-361 DOI: https://doi.org/10.30892/rrgp.251101-361

Rogerson, C.M., & Sixaba, Z. (2022). The limits of rural tourism in COVID-19 South Africa: Perceptions from ‘left behind’ rural spaces. African Journal of Hospitality, Tourism and Leisure, 11 (1), 362-378. https://doi.org/10.46222/ajhtl.19770720-207 DOI: https://doi.org/10.46222/ajhtl.19770720.000

Rogerson, C.M., & van der Merwe, C. (2016). Heritage tourism in the global South: development impacts of the Cradle of Humankind World Heritage Site, South Africa, Local Economy, 31 (1-2), 234-248. https://doi.org/10.1177/0269094215614270 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0269094215614270

Rogerson, J.M. (2016). Tourism geographies of the past: The uneven rise and fall of beach apartheid in South Africa. In R. Donaldson, G. Visser, J. Kemp, & J. de Waal, (Eds.), #Celebrateacenturyofgeography: Proceedings of the Centenary Conference of the Society of South African Geographers, (pp. 212-218). Society of South African Geographers.

Rogerson, J.M. (2017). ‘Kicking sand in the face of apartheid’: Segregated beaches in South Africa. Bulletin of Geography: Socio-Economic Series, 35, 93-109. https://dx.doi.org/10.1515/bog-2017-0007 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1515/bog-2017-0007

Rogerson, J.M., & Visser, G. (2020). Recent trends in South African tourism geographies. In J.M. Rogerson & G. Visser (Eds.), New directions in South African tourism geographies, (pp. 1-14). Springer. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-29377-2_1

Rogerson, J.M., Lekgau, R., Mashapa, M., & Rogerson, C.M. (2022). Rural tourism challenges in South Africa under COVID-19: Greater Giyani Local Municipality, Limpopo Province. African Journal of Hospitality, Tourism and Leisure, 11 (3), 1099-1117. https://doi.org/10.46222/ajhtl.19770720-278

Rosalina, P.D., Dupre, K., & Wang, Y. (2021). Rural tourism: A systematic literature review on definitions and challenges. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management, 47, 134-149. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhtm.2021.03.001 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhtm.2021.03.001

Roux, N., & Parnell, S. (2020). Colonial and post-colonial landscapes. In M. Domosh, M. Heffernan & C.W.J. Withers (Eds.), The SAGE Handbook of historical geography, Volume 1 (pp. 163-177). SAGE. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4135/9781529739954.n10

Ruiz-Real, J.L., Uribe-Toril, J., Valenciano, J.P., & Gázquez-Abad, J.C. (2021). Rural tourism and development: Evolution in scientific literature and trends. Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research, 46 (7), 1322-1346. https://doi.org/10.1177/1096348020926538 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1096348020926538

Saarinen, J., & Lenao, M. (2014). Integrating tourism to rural development and planning in the developing world. Development Southern Africa, 31 (3), 363-372. https://doi.org/10.1080/0376835X.2014.888334 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/0376835X.2014.888334

Saarinen, J., & Rogerson, J.M. (Eds.) (2021). Tourism, change and the Global South. Routledge. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003091325

Saarinen, J., Rogerson, C.M., & Hall, C.M. (2017). Geographies of tourism development and planning. Tourism Geographies, 19 (3), 307-317. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616688.2017.1307442 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/14616688.2017.1307442

Senyao, S., & Ha, S. (2022). How social media influences resident participation in rural tourism development: A case study of Tunda in Tibet. Journal of Tourism and Cultural Change, 20 (3), 386-405. https://doi.org/10.1080/14766825.2020.1849244 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/14766825.2020.1849244

Sharpley, R., & Roberts, L. (2004). Rural tourism – 10 years on. International Journal of Tourism Research, 6 (3), 119-124. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/jtr.478

Sharpley, R., & Sharpley, J. (1997). Rural Tourism: An Introduction. International Thomson Business Press.

Shen, S., & Quan, Q. (2022). Rural tourism development perceived by involved local farmers: Evidences from Gaochun county of China. Journal of Tourism and Cultural Change, 20 (1-2), 196-220. https://doi.org/10.1080/14766825.2021.1957905 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/14766825.2021.1957905

Silva, L. (2022). Adoption of renewable energy innovations in the Portuguese rural tourist accommodation sector. Moravian Geographical Reports, 30 (1), 22-33. https://doi.org/10.2478/mgr-2022-0002 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2478/mgr-2022-0002

Singhania, O., Swain, S,K., & George, B. (2022). Interdependence and complementarity between rural development and rural tourism: A bibliometric analysis. Rural Society, 31 (1), 15-32. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10371656.2022.2062198

Smith, D.M. (Ed.) (1982). Living Under Apartheid. George Allen and Unwin.

South African Institute of Race Relations. (1969). The African Reserves of South Africa. South African Institute of Race Relations.

Southall, R.J. (1983). South Africa's Transkei: The Political Economy of an" Independent" Bantustan. Monthly Review Press.

Stone, A. (1969). The Transkei: The world’s first all black state. The California Geographer, 10, 27-37.

Streek, B., & Wicksteed, R. (1981). Render Unto Kaiser: A Transkei Dossier. Ravan.

Tomlinson, R., & Addleson, M. (Eds.) (1987). Regional Restructuring under Apartheid: Urban and Regional Policies in Contemporary South Africa. Ravan.

Transkei Government (1975). The Transkei Annual. Government Printer.

Transkei Government (1986). Transkei Development Information Section 1, Vol. 1.

Wildman, K. (2005). The beach: The making and remaking of Coffee-Bay (1945-2005). MPhil dissertation (Public Culture), Centre for African Studies, University of Cape Town.

Wilson, M. (1959). The early history of the Transkei and Ciskei. African Affairs, 18 (4), 167-179. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00020185908707088

Wood, J., & Walton, J.K. (2016). The Making of a Cultural Landscape: The English Lake District as a Tourist Destination, 1750-2010. Routledge.

Zinzi Sixaba

Affiliation:

University of Johannesburg, School of Tourism & Hospitality South Africa

Bio Statement (e.g., department and rank)

PhD Student, School of Tourism & Hospitality, College of Business & Economics, University of Johannesburg, South Africa.

Christian Myles Rogerson

https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1306-8867

Affiliation:

University of Johannesburg (RPA), School of Tourism and Hospitality, College of Business and Economics South Africa